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.Instead, analog recording gradually introducesartifacts or noise into the duplicate.This process is similar to high contextcommunication and reader responsibility.Cultures best characterized as a kind of analog recorder rely on high con-text forms of communication.This means that language is perceived and usedas an additional component of communication.Likewise, assumptions aboutthe power of language among high context and analog cultures are embeddedin the way words are used.Instead of making sure the meaning is vivid andexplicit, a writer from an analog culture is likely to write implicitly.This meansthat the meaning and interpretation of a communication is indirect, multilay-ered, and less accessible.This also means that effective writing is different forsome cultures because language is perceived as an imperfect vehicle for trans-porting information.An analog use of language assumes that information willbe carried imperfectly.As a result of an analog assumption of language, wordsand meaning are contextualized as one part of many pieces of communica-tion.Nonverbal communication is critical for exchanging information in allcultures, but it is especially important for cultures with an analogic reliance onlanguage.3.4 Clarity and ambiguityDifferences between clarity and ambiguity illustrate the most important differ-ences in how people write around the world.Simple, direct, and concise lan-guage is the hallmark of good writing in native English-speaking countries andcultures.Proof of these rules is found in the most popular books on writing.The best known elements of style regularly caution against overwriting, over-stating, using qualifiers, and excessive detail.But the most important featureof good writing, according to these rulebooks, is clarity.Good writing is noth-ing if not clear, which is true even for those who wish to be obscure.Writersfrom the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States generally considerLanguage and Culture 49clarity to be the most important feature of effective writing.But this samevalue is not held by many other cultures.Perhaps the best known example of ambiguity is captured in the Japaneseword aimai, which roughly translates as vague, obscure, or questionable.It issaid that Japanese are more or less tolerant of ambiguity in communication,which is why it is considered an important if not crucial trait of Japanese life.At the root of aimai is a unique relationship with uncertainty, a deep culturalvalue.Tolerance for uncertainty or cultivation of aimai may create some con-fusion in writing and communication not only at the international level, butalso among the Japanese themselves.The origin of aimai is probably rooted in the geographic character of itspeople.Japan is a small island country, which places it in a precious globalposition.Its size ensures that fewer abundant resources are available for tap-ping, while its position to other Asian countries such as China, place its politi-cal position in some degree of uncertainty.It is also a small country based offthe Asian continental shelf, which means it is susceptible to the whims ofnature.Typhoons and earthquakes are common occurrences in Japan, furtherexacerbating its place is Japan s mountainous terrain.Though beautiful, Japan salready small countryside is less favorable to agriculture, which means peoplehave had to live closely for extended periods of time.The concept of harmony,or wa, is an important part of Japanese life, presumably for its precariousgeography and dense population.All of these characteristics of Japanese life have contributed to theemphasis on ambiguity or aimai.It was important to make sure that peoplecooperated in agricultural times, as in the labor-intensive work of rice produc-tion.Better cooperation ensured more food, causing a kind of unanimousthinking or group conscious goal.It is important to not disrupt the rhythmof groups in times of necessary cooperation.Perhaps the best reason for main-taining harmony is that it minimizes exclusion, an otherwise risky endeavor.Instead, it is far better to go along with the group to maintain harmoniousrelations.It is for these reasons that ambiguity is emphasized in Japanesewriting.Roundabout expressions in Japanese go by one of several names, suchas chotto, demo, and kangaete-okune.These hedges are often used to declinean offer, but in a warm and friendly manner.A direct question for preferringcoffee or tea may result in a response stating that either is fine.This kindof ambiguity, benign as it may seem, is a key feature of Japanese writing50 Writing Around the Worldand communication.A similar ambiguity is found in the Japanese use ofmaa-maa, which roughly translates as  not so bad.Maa-maa is one of those phrases that say more about a culture than wouldbe possible in a single book.When asking a Japanese student how she did onan exam, she is likely to respond with maa-maa even if she received an excel-lent grade.This response goes back to the nature of humility in many cultures,discouraging personal argument, and maintaining harmony or wa.A studentwho says that she did well is likely to be eyed with some suspicion.The con-cern, presumably, is that speaking well of one s own accomplishments indi-cates arrogance and overconfidence.Neither of these qualities have a home ingroup conscious cultures [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]